A Secret Weapon for Short Essays

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Discharge Plan for Patient Who Underwent Total Hip Replacement free essay sample

This paper focuses on the discharge plan for patient who underwent the Total Hip Replacement (THR). The nurse, as a case manager, works with the multidisciplinary team to determine the appropriate discharge plan for the patient. The roles and responsibilities of each member are elaborated. The healthcare issues, the safety assessment are discussed. In this case study the patient lives alone during the recovery from the surgery, so the effects of social isolation and psychological factors on the recovery process are also explained. Assessment of the Situation: After the assessment of Mr. Trosack medical conditions, the three healthcare issues that present are identified as (1) high fall risk, (2)the insufficient family support, (3) the pain issues that are resulted from the hip fracture and the total hip replacement (THR), and (4) the impaired mobility. There are many factors that will put Mr. Trosack at risk for future falls. First, the physiological changes associated with ageing that affect mobility. These factors may include hearing loss, visual impairment, decreased muscle mass, decreased muscle strength; especially in lower extremities, as well as a decrease in endurance. These conditions make the older adults vulnerable and contributing falls. Second, some of the medications that are prescribed for Mr. Trosack such as Percocet, Glucophage, and Lopressor have adverse side effects that may increase the risk of future falls. Percocet was prescribed for his postoperative pain, Glucophage was prescribed as an anti diabetic agent, and Lopressor used to treat hypertension. Some of the side effects of Percocet associated with falls include orthostatic hypotension and sedation which can make him dizzy or drowsy. Hypoglycemia is a side effect of Glucophage and it is also risk factor for falls. Lopressor may cause fatigue, weakness, and hypotension and these symptoms could also easily increase the incidence of falls. In addition to the medications, other complications that develop after hip surgery are pain and impaired mobility which are also added risk factors of falls. Upon further assessment using the Morse fall scale it was found that Mr.Trosack scored 65. A patient who scores more than 25 is at high risk and should have fall prevention strategies in place (Mauk, 2010). Because of the several high risk fall factors that present Mr. Trosack ,it should be recommended that he not be discharged to his home where he has to mostly mange his own care and risk future injury. His family also refuses any outside nursing assistance and it will be extremely difficult for Mr. Trosack to perform the basic activities of daily living. Another healthcare issue is the insufficient family support Mr. Trosack receives. He currently lives alone in his own apartment on the second floor of a three story apartment building. He has a son, Peter who is 44 years old and married. Peter and his wife are very busy with their careers and both work about sixty hours a week. They are also trying to conceive their first child. Living this type of life and having their own family commitments will not allow them to offer much help to Mr. Trosack. It also has been shown that in the past Peter has had minimal contact with his father. The other family member that Mr. Trosack could look to is his brother, Karl. However, most of Karl’s time is occupied with working schedules at the family-owned bakery store. This limitation prevents him to assist with Mr. Trosack’s daily care. Furthermore, the results of the family interview show that the family members have inadequate knowledge about the needs of taking medications. They also do not believe that Mr. Trosack has Diabetes and assume that a modification to his diet is enough to cure the disease. Since it appears that family members cannot provide sufficient care along with their lack of knowledge about his illness and treatments, Mr. Trosack is not safe to be discharged to his home. The nurse must reevaluate and find placement where he can have adequate and effective care in a long-term care and rehabilitation facility. This will provide him the nursing care, wound care, physical therapy, ambulation assistance, dietary consultation to control Diabetes, teaching, and other services needed to facilitate his recovery and prepare him to care for himself at home. The third healthcare concern is the pain issues that can affect the recovery process and quality of life. The incision pain from the surgery may interfere with his mobility and activity of daily living. Mr. Trosack potentially needs help for some asic daily functions such as preparing meals, getting dressed, taking showers, and getting out of bed. Although he has been prescribed Percocet to manage his pain he has a history of medication non -compliance as evidenced by the many old prescriptions that fill his bathroom medicine cabinet. Therefore, it is believed that he may not take his medications as prescribed, so pain may continue to affect his mobility, self care, and daily functions. Pain may also cause sleep disturbance, such as sleep deprivation, which can lead to fatigue and decreased immune functions. This potentially will slow down the recovery process after the surgery. Keeping these indications in mind, the pain issues described here should be considered when planning for discharging the elderly patient. The fourth healthcare issue is impaired mobility. The mobility impairment affects patient both physical and psychological aspects. Due to the gait instability, poor balance, pain and, muscle weakness caused by the hip fracture and the surgery, Mr. Trosack has to use walker for ambulation. However, he lives in a small cluttered apartment, the bathroom is also small with no safety equipments installed, and there are many scatter rugs, this home environment highly put him at risk for falls. Using walker as an assistive device for ambulation and not being able to independently perform daily activities like before, these are the adjustments to the lifestyle changes which can lead a psychological problem as he states â€Å"he is being disabled†. Due to the fact that he is living alone, if the discharge destination is home, the feeling of being disabled and the isolated living conditions, may lead to a psychological disorder such as depression. Therefore, the interdisciplinary team will need to consider the impaired mobility issues when planning for the discharge placement. The interdisciplinary team works together to develop an appropriate discharge plan that meets patient’s goals, needs, and their medical conditions. The plan will also promote their independence in their activity of daily living as much as possible. Some of the healthcare professionals that make up the multidisciplinary team to establish the discharge plan for Mr. Trosack include the physician, nurse, physical therapist, and the registered dietitian. The members of the team have the specific roles and responsibilities. The physician assesses the patient’s medical conditions, summarizes the medications and the treatments. Next, the physician then writes the discharge order, discusses the discharge plan of care, and the follow up visits with Mr. Trosack and family members. The nurse’s role, as a case manager, is involved in all aspects of the discharge planning. The nurse will inform Mr. Trosack and his family about the discharge process. In this scenario, after the evaluation of the patient’s clinical conditions and psychosocial issues, the patient is likely to be placed in a skilled nursing facility. The nurse will coordinate with the chosen facility and make arrangements for the transfer to ensure a smooth transition and for the continuity of care. Teaching is an essential part of nursing care. Mr. Trosack and his family members will be taught how to manage the incision site, his pain, Diabetes, and hypertension. Teaching also involves dispensing medications along with the side effects, the appropriate diet to control blood sugar levels, diabetic foot care, prevention of fall risk, good nutrition to promote healing, signs and symptoms of hyperglycemia and hypoglycemia, and when to report to the healthcare provider. Another healthcare professional who will play an important role in the discharge plan is a Physical Therapist (PT). Mr. Trosack will be assessed and evaluated about his mobility status, balance, and gait patterns. PT will make recommendations about assistive devices for ambulation such as a walker and arrangements for gait and balance training. PT also provides teaching to patients and their family members about exercise programs such as strengthening exercises to improve muscle strength around the hip joint and legs. Other types of the exercise may include range of motion exercise which can prevent joint stiffness and maintains joint flexibility. Additional instruction includes the proper use of the devices, safe transferring, and positioning techniques. Other personnel who make up the interdisciplinary team is the registered dietitian (RD). An RD will work with the patient and perform an assessment using medical and social history, diet history and laboratory data to plan for the appropriate nutrition program. Individualized sample menus and meal plans based on patient conditions are provided to patient and family members. The RD also monitors the patient’s nutritional status and the response to the plan to improve the clinical outcomes. With his current medical illnesses, Mr. Trosack needs adequate calories, vitamin c, and zinc to promote wound healing and recovery from the Total Hip Replacement. The meal plan should also include a diabetic diet to control blood sugar levels and the proper nutrition to manage hypertension. As for the discharge placement for Mr. Trosack, the results of the safety assessment are important and will be used to determine the post discharge site of care. The data from the interview of the patient and family members reveal that the patient’s goal is to be discharged home. However, the assessment of the current living environment found that there were many factors not suitable for Mr. Trosack’s recovery at home. He lives in a three- story building, on a second floor, and there is no elevator, the post surgery conditions will make it difficult for him to take the stairs. Mr. Trosack also mentions in the interview that he cannot go to the basement. Furthermore, his apartment is small and cluttered, and there are many small rugs scatter throughout the apartment, this makes it difficult for him to get around and to manipulate the walker. Also, the bathroom is small and there are no safety tools, such as a raised toilet seat installed for patient who just underwent the hip surgery. The further assessment found many expired old prescriptions in the medicine cabinet; this reflects his noncompliance with medications in the past. Other factors that need to take into the considerations when the patient is discharged home are the transportations to the follow up visits, the support of the family, and the ability of the patient to manage the activity of daily living (ADLs). Mr. Trosack’s family members are too busy with work and unlikely to provide the adequate support. Therefore, Mr. Trosack will have a difficulty getting the medications, and going to the follow up visits. As for the capability to manage basic ADLs, the incision pain and the unsteady gait can interfere with the ability to perform some basic functions, for instance, getting dress, getting in and out of bed, and using the toilet. Based on the safety assessment and the interview data, Mr.Trosack should be discharged to the skilled nursing facility where he can receive the skilled nursing care and rehabilitation services, while working towards the goal to go home. If Mr. Trosack and the family members decided to be discharged home, the nurse will need to explain the plan of care and provide the extensive teaching to the patient and family members. This is to ensure that the patient will receive a safe and effective care at home. The teaching must be emphasized on the patient safety which includes home modification and fall preventions. The additional information includes diabetic care, medication and side effects, the ability of the family to provide supports on both physical and psychosocial needs. The nurse also may provide the necessary information about the community resources that helps to support the patient’s care. As for the safety measure, if possible, Mr. Trosack should move to the ground floor apartment. The living environment inside the apartment needs to be modified for an easy ambulation to decrease fall risks. The adequate lighting, removing the clutter and make the clean pathways are essential. He also needs some safety equipment installed in the bathroom. These may consist of the bath seat, high toilet seat, grab bars, a tub transfer bench, and the assistive devices to help with the low body dressing and bathing (http://www. texashealth. org/body. cfm? id=1619). During the recovery period, the family members have to consider the ability to manage their time in order provide Mr. Trosack the sufficient and effective care. Mr. Trosack will not be able to take the stairs, therefore he will need the assistance from the family to deliver meals or groceries, and remove the trash. The family members can also assist in removing the spoilage food in the refrigerator, and the old medications in the bathroom cabinet. The current prescribed medications, the walker, and the telephone should be located within reach. The family members may take turn to help patient with the dressing changes, bathing, dressing, and toileting. In addition, due to the medical diagnoses of Diabetes and hypertension, the family and Mr. Trosack also will receive the teaching on the diabetic care, the appropriate nutrition to control blood sugar and blood pressure. The diabetic care teaching involves the monitoring of the incision site for signs and symptoms of infections, any skin breakdown, and the daily inspections of the feet. Moreover, the nurse will also teach the patient the proper use of the glucometer, the signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia, and the proper response to these conditions. The nurse will also educate patient and the family members about weight reduction and the health benefits. Mr. Trosack weights 210 lbs; losing weight will help him improve the medical conditions of Diabetes and hypertension. Weight loss helps promote cell’s sensitivity to insulin. It also has a positive effect on lowering blood pressure. Teaching also includes medications and the side effects, and when to report to the healthcare provider. The nurse will explain the importance of taking medications to manage the current illnesses. The negatives effects of medication non compliance also should be addressed. Besides nursing care, PT also provide teaching about the proper use of walker, the safe positioning and transferring, and the exercise program to promote the joint movements and muscle strengths. Taking care of Mr. Trosack requires a great amount of time and commitment. Since Mr. Trosack has medical issues from the surgery, his brother, Karl has to manage the bakery business alone. Karl will struggle with work and managing time to adequately take care of his brother. Similarly, Mr. Trosack’s son, Peter and his wife also have high pressure from work. They both work in the average of sixty hours per week. Besides they plan to conceive a child. So their situations may not allow them to provide Mr. Trosack a competent care. Because the family declines the outside nursing care, the nurse can provide the community resource lists to assist the family in provide the adequate care. For instance, the local senior center offers the different services to serve the elderly in the community such as senior transportation program; this can help Mr. Trosack to go to the scheduled follow up visits. Some of the other services are the meals on wheels which delivers the nutritious meal to the patient’s home. Also the respite care, this helps the family to have a temporary relief from providing care to the patient. Besides the physical care, the older adults also need psychological supports to promote the recovery. Social isolation and psychological factors can impact patient’s recovery from the illness. The causes of social isolation may be due to the lack of supports from family and friends, the financial difficulty, the illnesses, cognitive impairment, and lack of transportations. Also, the physiological changes associated with ageing, for instance, the impaired sensory functions, such as poor vision and hearing loss, can decrease the ability of the elderly to interact with other people which can result in social isolation. Being isolated from the society, it can lead to the loneliness. The lonely patients tend to have no interest in self care and physical activity. They also usually don’t comply with medications and medical treatments; this may cause the negative clinical outcomes. Furthermore, the elderly who lives alone with no supports commonly has poor appetite. A good nutrition is needed for wound healing and the recovery from the surgery and diseases. In contrast, poor nutrition will slow down the healing and recovery process. In addition, dealing with the illnesses is a great challenge in life; the patients will experience the emotional difficulty and need some supports to get through the situation. Lastly, social isolation is usually associated with poor mental health. This may further cause psychological dysfunctions such as depression and suicide. Apart from social isolation, psychological factors such as personal’s beliefs, optimisms, and the ability to cope with stress and the challenges in life, also play important role in the recovery process. The elder patients, who are optimistic about their care, and the possibility of the recovery, normally have a better a capability to cope with stress and the illnesses better than the pessimistic patients. They believe in the healthcare providers and the positive outcomes of the treatments, therefore these patients are likely to corporate with the plan of care, the necessary life style changes to improve the medical conditions, and doctor appointments. The optimists generally maintain good social supports and participate in social activities. They are also mostly in a good emotional state and happy with their lives. The happiness is linked to better immune functions, which lead to positive recovery outcomes. Besides optimism, the ability to cope with stresses also an essential element in the recovery process. The older patients who are capable of applying the coping skills to reduce stress may have better clinical outcomes that those who lack of stress management skills. The high level of chronic stress affects the physiological functions of the body. In response to stress, our body releases the cortisol hormone. One of cortisol functions is to suppress immune system. When the immune system is weak, it decreases the ability of the body to recover from diseases and fight infections. Based on Mr. Trosack medical’s condition, the results of safety assessment, and the information from patient and the family’s interview, he should be discharged to the skilled nursing facility and work towards the goal to be discharged home. At the skilled nursing facility, he will receive the care needed for the recovery. Mr. Trosack will have nursing assistant to assist with some ADLs such as toileting and dressing. He will received nursing care to monitor the incision site, manage the incision pain, monitor blood sugar levels to prevent the complications of diabetes. Also he will be provided proper nutrition and pharmacological interventions to manage diabetes and hypertension. Furthermore, he will be monitored for future falls and injury. Besides nursing care, Mr. Trosack will receive physical therapy treatments and the exercise program to improve balance and muscle strengths. He will also learn about the proper positioning to prevent the dislocation of the hip joint. Moreover, he will receive the adequate supports from the medical professionals and the staff. Also, he will have the opportunity to participate in group activities which will give him a sense of social connectedness. This helps promote mental health and facilitate the recovery. In conclusion, the nurse as a case manager works with patient, family members, and the interdisciplinary team to plan for the appropriate discharge for the patient. The discharge destination is chosen based on patient’s goal and needs. The results of the safety assessment and the interview of the family and patient along with patient’ medical conditions are used to determine the discharge placement. If the patient’s goal is to be discharged home, the nurse must provide the family the information about the needs of home modifications, the safety equipments installation to prevent future falls. Also, the nurse will discuss with the family members regarding the supports patient will receive at home during the recovery period. The nurse will also explain the family about the effects of social isolation and the psychological factors in the recovery process.

Theories of Cognitive Development an Insight to the Theories of Piaget, Information-Processing and Vygotsky Essay Example

Theories of Cognitive Development: an Insight to the Theories of Piaget, Information-Processing and Vygotsky Essay Theories of Cognitive Development: An insight to the theories of Piaget, Information-processing and Vygotsky How do we learn? How do we grow? Over the years, psychologists have studied to great lengths the processes that humans go through as they progress from infancy to adulthood. Several theories have emerged over time with three prominent ones. Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky produced two important and distinct theories. Another important theory, the information-processing theory, presents a completely different point of view. Each theory has is differences from the other and gives insight into the developing human mind. Jean Piaget believed that all children are curious and act as scientists in their never-ending quest to build understanding about the world around them. He theorized that children use schemes, which are constructs that children categorize events with. Examples of schemes would be â€Å"play things†, â€Å"things I eat† and â€Å"things I don’t like†. Piaget’s next term was assimilation, which is when children add things to one scheme or another, example, a child having peanut butter for the first time and placing it in â€Å"things I eat†. We will write a custom essay sample on Theories of Cognitive Development: an Insight to the Theories of Piaget, Information-Processing and Vygotsky specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Theories of Cognitive Development: an Insight to the Theories of Piaget, Information-Processing and Vygotsky specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Theories of Cognitive Development: an Insight to the Theories of Piaget, Information-Processing and Vygotsky specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Accomodation is when a child modifies a scheme because they have assimilated something that requires the entire scheme to be slightly redefined i. e. when a child learns that certain objects needs to be grasped with two hands instead of only one. (Kail/Cavanaugh, 133) The focus of Piaget’s study was on the four main stages of development. He believed that an individual goes through four main changes/stages in their life at birth and ages two, seven, and eleven. The first stage is the Sensorimotor stage. From birth to approximately age two, children are highly aware of stimuli and begin to figure out how to recreate them and what each one means. Senses and motor reflexes begin development. Also, object permanence, the understanding that objects exist when they are not in sight, begins to develop in this stage. Until approximately month 8 children will see an object and react to it, but if it is covered, the child will think it has ceased to exist and find interest in something else. This is a prime example of the adage â€Å"Out of sight, out of mind. † From 8 months to about 12 months, if there object were to be covered, the child would then search for it, not understanding that it is simply under a cloth, thus making the game â€Å"Peek-a-boo† enjoyable for the child. Piaget states that it takes until about 18 months for object permanence to be established. Preoperational Thinking is the second of Piaget’s stages. This stage focuses mostly on egocentrism, which is a child difficulty to see situations for another point of view. Preoperational children simply do not comprehend that other people differ in their ideas, convictions, and emotions† (Kail/Cavanaugh, 135) During the Preoperational Stage, children may begin to project their feelings onto inanimate objects, which is referred to as animism. At approximately age 7, a child enters the Concrete Operational Stage. This stage marks the beginning of the recognition that people experie nce things in different ways, thus beginning to give the child a sense of individuality. Here, the child begins to use abstract thinking and making decisions rationally based on observed phenomena. The child is now able to understand 4 + 2 = 6 and 6 – 4 = 2, as they have the ability to reverse operational thought. â€Å"The limitation of the third stage of cognitive development is that operations are only carried out on concrete objects, and limited to two characteristics at the same time. † (Lin, 2002) The fourth and final stage of Piaget’s theory is the Formal Operational Period. This period lasts from around age eleven to the end of life. No longer a child, the adolescent is capable of complex abstract thought and logic. Concrete evidence is no longer necessary to base judgments and decisions. Complex algebraic manipulation is possible now, meaning the individual would understand a + b = c then a = c – b and a/b = c then ac = b. (Child Development Center 2008) The Information-processing Theory is based on the construct that the human mind contains Mental Hardware and Software. This mental hardware is the â€Å"wiring† of the brain. It is the structure and pathways built in that allow the brain to function. The software is in reference to â€Å"programs† that allow people to perform specific tasks. Supporters of this theory believe that children’s mental software continues to grow and develop thorough life, becoming more complex. Part of the Information Processing Theory is attention, which is a process that determines what sensory information receives extra cognitive processing. Over time, children learn to focus attention between orienting responses, which grab the attention, and tasks at hand. As development continues, attention span is developed and children become able to focus their attention on things for longer periods of time. Learning is another important part of the Information-processing. Learning occurs through the process classical conditioning, among others. In classical conditioning, one response is elicited be providing a stimulus that is produced by another stimulus. The ever-popular example would be Pavlov’s dog. In this experiment, dogs were trained to recognize that food, which caused salivation, would be given to them after a bell was rung. Eventually the dogs learned that the bell meant food was coming and began to salivate upon hearing the bell. â€Å"Young babies remember events for days or even weeks at a time. † (Kali/Cavanaugh, 149) Experiments by Rovee-Collier prove three things: 1. Babies remember past events, 2. These events are eventually forgotten, 3. Cues can remind the baby of the events. As the memory develops over the first two years, the memory center so the brain, hippocampus and amygdala, show growth and development. Autobiographical memory is also important. With parental encouragement and discussion of past events, children’s memory has shown to be richer and more vivid. Number skills are the last component to the information-processing theory. Infants are aware of ordinality, which is the fact that numbers differ in magnitude. By age three, children have mastered three principles. The first principle is the one-to-one principle. This principle refers to the idea that each number has an exact and unchanging quantity. The Stable-order principle is that numbers will always occur in the same order. The Cardinality Principle refers to the fact that when counting a quantity, the last number is the most important as it is the amount of whatever is being counted. Lev Vygotsky presented a fairly different approach to development. His theory, while not fully developed due to an early death, focuses on three main points of zone of proximal development, scaffolding, and private speech. Zone of proximal development is defined as the area between the level of performance a child can achieve when working independently and a higher level of performance that is possible when working under the guidance or direction of more skilled adults or peers. (Kali/Cavanaugh, 155) This is exemplified by the text’s example of children doing story problems. The children find themselves unable to complete the problem until directed by an adult who lays out the problem in steps for the child. Scaffolding is where teachers (of any manner) gauge how much assistance to offer based on how much help the student needs. Vygotsky states that only offering the correct amount of assistance and not â€Å"over-helping† promotes learning. Private speech, the final component of Vygotsky’s theory is speech by the child that is not intended for others. It is an undeveloped inner-monologue. Vygotsky called private speech a for of self-regulation. Inner Speech eventually develops and the child is able to self-regulate without verbal reminders from themselves. Each of these theories presents different yet valid points of view. Piaget presents a more â€Å"stepping-stone† point of view. Information-processing is more of an experiential learning track, whereas Vygotsky sees development as â€Å"as collaboration between expert and novice. † (Kali/Cavanaugh, 156) While none of these provide an exact and definitive answer into how he learn and grow, they give us an insight as to what is happening inside the human mind. Works Cited Kail, Robert V. , and John C. Cavanaugh. Human Development A Life-Span View. 4th ed. Belmont: Wadsworth, 2006. Huitt, W. (2003). The information processing approach to cognition. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved 15 May 2009 from http://chiron. valdosta. edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/infoproc. html Lin, S. (2002). Piagets developmental stages. In B. Hoffman (Ed. ), Encyclopedia of Educational Technology. Retrieved May 15, 2009, from http://coe. sdsu. edu/eet/Articles/piaget/start. htm Myers, Robert. Stages of Intellectual Development In Children and Teenagers, Child Development Institute. 15 May 2009. http://www. childdevelopmentinfo. com/development/piaget. shtml Theories of Cognitive Development an Insight to the Theories of Piaget, Information-Processing and Vygotsky Essay Example Theories of Cognitive Development: an Insight to the Theories of Piaget, Information-Processing and Vygotsky Essay Theories of Cognitive Development: An insight to the theories of Piaget, Information-processing and Vygotsky How do we learn? How do we grow? Over the years, psychologists have studied to great lengths the processes that humans go through as they progress from infancy to adulthood. Several theories have emerged over time with three prominent ones. Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky produced two important and distinct theories. Another important theory, the information-processing theory, presents a completely different point of view. Each theory has is differences from the other and gives insight into the developing human mind. Jean Piaget believed that all children are curious and act as scientists in their never-ending quest to build understanding about the world around them. He theorized that children use schemes, which are constructs that children categorize events with. Examples of schemes would be â€Å"play things†, â€Å"things I eat† and â€Å"things I don’t like†. Piaget’s next term was assimilation, which is when children add things to one scheme or another, example, a child having peanut butter for the first time and placing it in â€Å"things I eat†. We will write a custom essay sample on Theories of Cognitive Development: an Insight to the Theories of Piaget, Information-Processing and Vygotsky specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Theories of Cognitive Development: an Insight to the Theories of Piaget, Information-Processing and Vygotsky specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Theories of Cognitive Development: an Insight to the Theories of Piaget, Information-Processing and Vygotsky specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Accomodation is when a child modifies a scheme because they have assimilated something that requires the entire scheme to be slightly redefined i. e. when a child learns that certain objects needs to be grasped with two hands instead of only one. (Kail/Cavanaugh, 133) The focus of Piaget’s study was on the four main stages of development. He believed that an individual goes through four main changes/stages in their life at birth and ages two, seven, and eleven. The first stage is the Sensorimotor stage. From birth to approximately age two, children are highly aware of stimuli and begin to figure out how to recreate them and what each one means. Senses and motor reflexes begin development. Also, object permanence, the understanding that objects exist when they are not in sight, begins to develop in this stage. Until approximately month 8 children will see an object and react to it, but if it is covered, the child will think it has ceased to exist and find interest in something else. This is a prime example of the adage â€Å"Out of sight, out of mind. † From 8 months to about 12 months, if there object were to be covered, the child would then search for it, not understanding that it is simply under a cloth, thus making the game â€Å"Peek-a-boo† enjoyable for the child. Piaget states that it takes until about 18 months for object permanence to be established. Preoperational Thinking is the second of Piaget’s stages. This stage focuses mostly on egocentrism, which is a child difficulty to see situations for another point of view. Preoperational children simply do not comprehend that other people differ in their ideas, convictions, and emotions† (Kail/Cavanaugh, 135) During the Preoperational Stage, children may begin to project their feelings onto inanimate objects, which is referred to as animism. At approximately age 7, a child enters the Concrete Operational Stage. This stage marks the beginning of the recognition that people experie nce things in different ways, thus beginning to give the child a sense of individuality. Here, the child begins to use abstract thinking and making decisions rationally based on observed phenomena. The child is now able to understand 4 + 2 = 6 and 6 – 4 = 2, as they have the ability to reverse operational thought. â€Å"The limitation of the third stage of cognitive development is that operations are only carried out on concrete objects, and limited to two characteristics at the same time. † (Lin, 2002) The fourth and final stage of Piaget’s theory is the Formal Operational Period. This period lasts from around age eleven to the end of life. No longer a child, the adolescent is capable of complex abstract thought and logic. Concrete evidence is no longer necessary to base judgments and decisions. Complex algebraic manipulation is possible now, meaning the individual would understand a + b = c then a = c – b and a/b = c then ac = b. (Child Development Center 2008) The Information-processing Theory is based on the construct that the human mind contains Mental Hardware and Software. This mental hardware is the â€Å"wiring† of the brain. It is the structure and pathways built in that allow the brain to function. The software is in reference to â€Å"programs† that allow people to perform specific tasks. Supporters of this theory believe that children’s mental software continues to grow and develop thorough life, becoming more complex. Part of the Information Processing Theory is attention, which is a process that determines what sensory information receives extra cognitive processing. Over time, children learn to focus attention between orienting responses, which grab the attention, and tasks at hand. As development continues, attention span is developed and children become able to focus their attention on things for longer periods of time. Learning is another important part of the Information-processing. Learning occurs through the process classical conditioning, among others. In classical conditioning, one response is elicited be providing a stimulus that is produced by another stimulus. The ever-popular example would be Pavlov’s dog. In this experiment, dogs were trained to recognize that food, which caused salivation, would be given to them after a bell was rung. Eventually the dogs learned that the bell meant food was coming and began to salivate upon hearing the bell. â€Å"Young babies remember events for days or even weeks at a time. † (Kali/Cavanaugh, 149) Experiments by Rovee-Collier prove three things: 1. Babies remember past events, 2. These events are eventually forgotten, 3. Cues can remind the baby of the events. As the memory develops over the first two years, the memory center so the brain, hippocampus and amygdala, show growth and development. Autobiographical memory is also important. With parental encouragement and discussion of past events, children’s memory has shown to be richer and more vivid. Number skills are the last component to the information-processing theory. Infants are aware of ordinality, which is the fact that numbers differ in magnitude. By age three, children have mastered three principles. The first principle is the one-to-one principle. This principle refers to the idea that each number has an exact and unchanging quantity. The Stable-order principle is that numbers will always occur in the same order. The Cardinality Principle refers to the fact that when counting a quantity, the last number is the most important as it is the amount of whatever is being counted. Lev Vygotsky presented a fairly different approach to development. His theory, while not fully developed due to an early death, focuses on three main points of zone of proximal development, scaffolding, and private speech. Zone of proximal development is defined as the area between the level of performance a child can achieve when working independently and a higher level of performance that is possible when working under the guidance or direction of more skilled adults or peers. (Kali/Cavanaugh, 155) This is exemplified by the text’s example of children doing story problems. The children find themselves unable to complete the problem until directed by an adult who lays out the problem in steps for the child. Scaffolding is where teachers (of any manner) gauge how much assistance to offer based on how much help the student needs. Vygotsky states that only offering the correct amount of assistance and not â€Å"over-helping† promotes learning. Private speech, the final component of Vygotsky’s theory is speech by the child that is not intended for others. It is an undeveloped inner-monologue. Vygotsky called private speech a for of self-regulation. Inner Speech eventually develops and the child is able to self-regulate without verbal reminders from themselves. Each of these theories presents different yet valid points of view. Piaget presents a more â€Å"stepping-stone† point of view. Information-processing is more of an experiential learning track, whereas Vygotsky sees development as â€Å"as collaboration between expert and novice. † (Kali/Cavanaugh, 156) While none of these provide an exact and definitive answer into how he learn and grow, they give us an insight as to what is happening inside the human mind. Works Cited Kail, Robert V. , and John C. Cavanaugh. Human Development A Life-Span View. 4th ed. Belmont: Wadsworth, 2006. Huitt, W. (2003). The information processing approach to cognition. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved 15 May 2009 from http://chiron. valdosta. edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/infoproc. html Lin, S. (2002). Piagets developmental stages. In B. Hoffman (Ed. ), Encyclopedia of Educational Technology. Retrieved May 15, 2009, from http://coe. sdsu. edu/eet/Articles/piaget/start. htm Myers, Robert. Stages of Intellectual Development In Children and Teenagers, Child Development Institute. 15 May 2009. http://www. childdevelopmentinfo. com/development/piaget. shtml

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Are networks important to entrepreneurs when starting new business In this essay, I have chosen to write a report about why networks are important to entrepreneurs when starting a business. In this essay, I will analyse and describe the use of social relations in the business establishment process, and the benefits behind networks in entrepreneurship. I will write this essay using my findings in books, articles, newspapers and the internet. I will try to not only produce a logical argument concerning why networks are important, but try and apply theories to back up my view and points. I will also use my personal understandings of why networks are important to entrepreneurs, but reflecting understandings and knowledge I gained by interviewing an entrepreneur. Main Body An entrepreneur is an individual who has a new idea, or enterprise who accepts the financial risks to capitalising on that idea and undertakes a new financial venture. The word entrepreneur derives from the French language, which applies to any individual who is starting a new project or business. (Hisrich, Peters, Shepherd, 2006). To some economists, an entrepreneur is someone who is willing to take the risks of starting a new business if there is an opportunity for them to make profit out of the idea. The concept of entrepreneurship was first created in the 1700s, and the meaning has evolved ever since. There are hundreds of different theories and explanations for defining entrepreneurship. However, all economists and business academics agree entrepreneurs posses behaviours like: initiative taking, the structuring and restructuring of social and economic social mechanisms to turn resources and situations to practical account and lastly the acceptance of risk or failure (Hisrich, Pe ters, Shephard 2006). My definition of an entrepreneur is someone who has an idea, and the idea progresses from just being an idea, to becoming a passion, something that an entrepreneur would sacrifice a lot to see succession in. So why are networks important to entrepreneurs? People usually develop relationships with people like themselves. Athletes develop ties with other athletes, wealthy people develop ties with other wealthy people, and educated people develop ties with other educated people. Its part of our nature, we tend to be attracted to those who are similar to us. So what is the reason for this? Perhaps we feel more comfortable when around those who are similar to us? I believe the answer is yes. Socially similar people, even when competing against each other, spend time in the same locations, which cause relationships to occur (Swedberg, 2000). Having a large network range matters. People with larger contact networks gain better paying positions than people with smaller networks . Network range, indicated by size, is the primary measure (Cosson, 2010). Its simple, the more people you are in contact with, the quicker you will learn the tricks and shortcuts. Dragons Den is a television show, broadcasted on BBC, on which entrepreneurs pitch their ideas in pursuit of securing an investment from one of the dragons (the investors). However, most of the entrepreneurs arent exactly interested in the investment, but the network of contacts that the investor can offer the business. Whenever an entrepreneur secures an investment, they ask the dragons a series of questions concerning whether they have the right contacts which the entrepreneur could use in their business. Having social networks is important, full stop. In any type of activity you take part in, there are advantages of having acquaintances who possess knowledge in that. Being a student, I know the advantages of building friendship with those who are on the same degree scheme as me. At times if I struggle, there are always people that I can turn to for guidance. Its the same concept with an entrepreneur. No matter how clever you are, or how academically brilliant you are, you will always face problems, and at times, these problems could have major impacts on the whole business. Networks help you Accomplish a positive relationship with people who are knowledgeable in a specific field, not only will it strengthen your option of networks, but it can help the entrepreneur enlarge their networks to get important information and resources from their contacts (Wiklunk, 2006). The next advantage is positioning, entrepreneurs position themselves within a social network to shorten the route the more experienced others took to get what they need. Its about finding shortcuts, and possessing a selection of experienced contacts can help you find these shortcuts faster (Burt, 1992). Networking between entrepreneurs is a very effective tool, it various advantages (Cosson, 2010): To improve commercial acumen Encourage collaborations between similar businesses Support one another, help to enlarge the specific market that youre involved in A personal network, consists of all those individuals whom the entrepreneur has direct relations to, this includes individuals like employees, suppliers, partners etc. Strong tie relations are those that the entrepreneur can count on and trust weak tie relations are only casual; people rarely have emotional investments in them. So what is the importance of sustaining weak ties?. Reflecting on Granovetters (1973) reasoning, which links weak and strong ties together, states that entrepreneurs are typical to be found in positions where centrality is high, this allows them to many diverse sources of information (Landstrom, 2009). To explain Social Networks in basic terms, the acquaintances of our friends, are also our friends (Aldrich and Kim, 2005). However, a personal network is a high density network, due to all the persons involved in that network being well known to each other. My interpretation of this is that it is important to sustain a balance of weak and strong ties. In basic w ords, its word of mouth, which plays a crucial role in starting or operating a new business. You might not know the contacts, but perhaps maybe your strong ties are in some form of relation to those weak ties, and that creates a flow of information which the entrepreneur could benefit from (Cosson, 2010). . The social network concept is the relationship between an entrepreneur and the networks of contacts they have who provide them the resources that are important in starting a business and most importantly successfully running the business (Carsrud, Brannback, Brannback 2007). These acquaintances usually have some form of experience and knowledge concerning that specific field. Every entrepreneur, has, or believes to have some kind of knowledge to be capable of running the business, but they also need complementary resources to produce or improve their products (Casson, 2010). The contacts dont necessarily have to be formal, they can be informal, such as friends, family or people who studied on the same degree scheme as you in university. These networks are absolutely crucial in obtaining a successful business (Ross and Brown, 1993). Those acquaintances who guide the entrepreneur to success are their social capital, and one of their key elements of their networks (Casson, 2010). Social Capital is a concept which means the connection and relationship between social networks, in this case, between the entrepreneur and their network. This can be seen as an investment for the entrepreneur. The word investment shouldnt necessarily mean financially investing in a product or company, but, anything that you establish and become part of that is beneficial to you in the long term (Burt, 1992). I personally believe formal networks are as crucial to an entrepreneur as informal networks are. The entrepreneurial process has many lonely and difficult times. Its part of becoming successful. There will be times when establishing a moral-support network is critical. The moral-support network is your friends and family, in simple words, people who make you happy (Hisrich, Peters, Shepherd, 2006). There will be times where even a single phone call from a friend or family will make you feel better, someone to encourage you to pick yourself up and carry on in pursuit of succession. Friends are a critical part of moral-support network, not only can they provide you with honest advice, the form of advice and opinions that others might not be so comfortable in delivering, but they can also provide you with assistance and you can confide with them without the fear of criticism (Cosson, 2010). Although not necessarily true, most entrepreneurs have parents who also own their own businesses or small firms (Cosson, 2010). Young entrepreneurs are able to take advantage of the experience a nd knowledge their parents possess and use it when developing a business of their own. However, a problem comes with this scenario. Off course family members are helpful at particular aspects when giving advice and feedback, however, too much dependence on family members may impact and restrict the entrepreneurs network. Economists stress that dependence on family members may limit an entrepreneurs networking circle. Entrepreneurial parents are a great source of information, there is no doubt about that, but knowing the limit of how much information to acquire from them is critical. You have to interact with the real world, the hard world, to be able to substance a successful business. Sooner or later your parents will be incapable of giving you information, and in that situation, you have no choice but to turn to networks outside your family zone (Birley, 1985). A study by Aldrich, Rosen and Woodward (1987) has suggested that those entrepreneurs with variable networks are more like ly to experience better results. The applicants of the research, reported to have a higher than average number of contacts per week with core network members (Landstrom, 2010). A close friend of mine, Irfan Patel, after 4 years of planning and research, owns his own business, Citybeat53. Citybeat53 is a business that offers young talented musicians events and advertisement through its own channel of networks. it provides opportunity to those who need guidance and help. Irfan is a Music Engineering graduate from the University of Leeds. After graduating, he successfully secured an internship to work for SONY BMG. As he explained, whilst being an employee for Sony BMG, he learnt an ocean of information and skills. He believes it was due to the people he worked with, all of whom had side activities and businesses. Whilst working at the company, he formed a relationship with a colleague who specialised in organising concerts, book signings and formal events. And he began a string of net works for Irfan. Using those networks, Irfan managed to gather enough information and resources to create this incredibly unique business. As he explained, when the business established, the first year was the loneliest and most difficult time he has ever experienced. He explained that if it wasnt for the relationships he formed whilst working for Sony BMG, he would have never made it this far. He values the network he established in London, more than achieving his degree. At times, he believe that maybe he should have done things differently, maybe taken different routes, but he believes everything that has happened to him counts as experience. To conclude this essay, I have learnt that to be a successful entrepreneur, its critical to obtain a variety set of networks for yourself. To set up a successful new business, you must make relations with those who you believe can help you gain better results. By reading through this essay, I have learnt that not only the entrepreneurial experience is a hard and at times, long process, but it can affect an individual mentally. By carrying out a research about this field, I have learnt that those entrepreneurs who constantly try and expand their networks, and use their social network contacts to learn about new opportunities, often find a shorter route to success than those solo entrepreneurs (Wiklunk, 2006). Trying to expand your network of contacts is like investing in a flow of information, at a cost of putting the effort of finding those contacts and maintaining a positive relationship with them. By looking at different types of theories and stories from entrepreneurs, I learnt th at the majority of experienced entrepreneurs advice those younger entrepreneurs to expand their range of networks, and most importantly, maintain a diversified network. Weak ties are as important as strong ties. Entrepreneurship is about change, its about offering the market something unique, and throughout the entrepreneurial process, the entrepreneur will face environmental changes, changes which can be extremely challenging, hence the entrepreneur needs to be prepared to face these challenges. Having a network becomes like mechanism, a device created to help you to successfully respond to these changes.